Western Civilization

Chapter Fourteen

“new Directions in Thought and Culture in the 16^th and 17^th Centuries”

The Scientific Revolution

n During the 16 century there was a great revival in the study of astronomy.

n Among the Greek writings recovered during the 1500s were those of Aristarchus.

n In the 200s B.C. Aristarchus had proposed the Helio-centric Theory of the earth revolving around the sun.

n Up until this time, most Europeans followed Church doctrine of the Geo-centric Theory.

Nicholas Copernicus

n Published his work, “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres” in 1543.

n Supported the Helio-centric Theory.

n Few people believed in the heliocentric theory for it seemed to contradict the evidence of the senses.

n Copernicus’ idea really was only a theory, for he could not test and prove with the instruments or the mathematics available to him.

Tyco Brahe (1546-1601)

n A Danish nobleman, Tycho Brahe built the best observatory of his time, for which he collected extensive data on the location of the stars and planets.

n Brahe did not totally accept Copernicus’ views, as he believed that the earth still occupied the center of the universe and that the other planets revolved around the sun, which in turn revolved around the earth.

n Brahe’s discovery of a new star in 1572, and the appearance of a comet in 1577, shattered the beliefs in an unchanging sky and crystalline spheres.

Johann Kepler

n Did great work in astronomy during the early 1600s.

n Using mathematics as a tool, he set out to prove Copernicus’ theory.

n Eventually proved, mathematically that Copernicus was correct in his theory.

n Kepler’s findings were not understood by most people who still believed their senses.

Galileo Galilei

n By use of the telescope, Galileo disproved the Geocentric theory.

n Provided observable evidence that the earth was not the center of the universe.

n Published his findings in 1632 in a work called “Dialogue on the Two Great Spheres.”

n Galileo was forced to recant his findings or face excommunication by the Church.

n Galileo was interested in physics as well as astronomy.

n Discovered the principle of the pendulum, which later helped in the development of the pendulum clock.

n Galileo also helped to disprove the theory of Aristotle that heavier bodies fall at a faster rate than lighter ones.

n This study laid the foundation for the modern study of mechanics.

Francis Bacon and Scientific Methodology

n The author of Advancement of Learning (1605) and an advocate of experimental approaches to knowledge, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) formalized empiricism, an approach using inductive reasoning.

n An Englishman, Bacon himself did few experiments but believed empiricism would produce useful, rather than purely theoretical, knowledge.

Isaac Newton

n The mathematical work of Isaac Newton was the high point of the scientific revolution.

n In 1687, Newton published The Mathematical Principals of Natural Philosophy, better known as the Principia Mathematica.

u Newton reasoned that the planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved through mutual attraction, or gravity.

u The attraction of gravity explained why the planets moved in an orderly rather than a chaotic manner.

n Like Bacon, Newton believed in empiricism, and the idea that one must observe phenomena before attempting to explain them.

Connections with the Rest of Society.

n During the Renaissance, many universities established the study of mathematics and physics.

n All of the great scientists involved in the changes in astronomy studied at universities.

n The demands for explorers, especially those at sea, for more accurate measurements of the stars,in creased attention of the detail of the heavenly movements.

n Warfare, particularly the developing use of artillery, required and permitted explanations, involving precise measurements.

n Initially, Protestant areas were more hostile than Catholic ones to the new learning.

n After Galileo, however, Catholic authorities led in trying to suppress the new ideas.

The Enlightenment

The goals and values of the movement:

n Autonomy of Reason

n Perfectibility & Progress of man

n Confidence in human ability to find causality.

n Principles govern man, nature, and society

n Assault on authority (State & Church)

n Cosmopolitan solidarity of enlightened intellectuals

n Disgust with nationalism

The Central Ideals:

n Progress

u heaven on earth

n Deism

u God as a prime mover using natural

laws, no supernatural

n Tolerance

u Peace among nations and their peoples

European Political Thinkers

Rene’ Descartes

• A leader of the Enlightenment

movement.

• Helped to bring the use of

scientific knowledge in the

development of human

philosophy.

• Emphasized human reasoning

as the best road to

understanding.

Quotation

“I Think, Therefore I Am”

Connections

• Allowed for the development of the

Enlightenment movement which has

greatly affected our political and economic

policies of today.

European Political Thinkers

Thomas Hobbes

u People are driven by selfishness and greed.

u To avoid chaos, they give up their freedom to a government that will ensure order.

u Such a government must be strong and able to suppress rebellion

Quotation

“The condition of man [ in the state of nature ] …. is a condition of war of everyone against everyone.”

European Political Thinkers

John Locke

u People have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

u Rulers have a responsibility to protect those rights.

u People have the right to change a government that fails to do so.

Quotation

“ Men being … by nature all free, equal, and independent, no one can be put out of this estate and subjected to the political power of another without his own consent.”

European Political Thinkers

Baron de Montesquieu

u The powers of government should be separated into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, to prevent any one group from gaining too much power.

Quotation

“ In order to have … liberty, it is necessary that government be set up so that one man need not be afraid of another.”

European Political Thinkers

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

u People are basically good but become corrupted by society.

u In an ideal society, people would make the laws and would obey them willingly.

Quotation

“Only the general will can direct the energies of the state in a manner appropriate to the end for which it was founded.”

Voltaire

u Used biting wit as a weapon to expose the abuses of his day.

u Targeted corrupt officials.

u Detested the slave trade and deplored religious prejudice.

Quotation

“I do not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

European Political Thinkers

Denis Diderot

u His purpose was to change the general way of thinking.

u He denounced slavery, praised freedom of expression, and urged education for all.

European Political Thinkers

Mary Wollstonecraft

u Accepted that a woman’s first duty was to be a good mother.

u Women should be able to decide what is in their best interest.

u Called for the same education for boys and girls.

Connections

Was one of the first to fight for the rights of women.

European Economic Thinkers

Adam Smith

u Philosophe’s that dealt with economic reforms were called physiocrats.

F Rejected the idea of mercantilism

F Promoted Laissez Faire Economics

F Wrote the Wealth of Nations

Superstitions

n Though the Enlightenment had changed the way many people would think during the 1600s and 1700s, many still hung on to traditional ways of thinking.

n Europeans were still preoccupied with sin, death and the Devil.

n Many still believed in the power of magic and the occult.

u Until the end of the 1800s, almost all Europeans believed in one way or another the power of demons.

Witchcraft

n Witch-hunting, though found in the late Middle Ages, occurred primarily in the 16^th and 17^th centuries.

u Between 1400 and 1700 between 70,000 and 100,000 people were put to death as witches.

n Belief in witches was found among all parts of society – the educated, the religious, and the poor.

n Historians and anthropologists provide many explanations as to why people believed in witches, and to why with-hunting occurred when and where it did.

u Perhaps people needed a reasons when things went badly.

u Another explanation is that the increased concern with religion, as a result of the Reformation, focused more attention on the role of the devil in life.

Those Accused

n A charge of witchcraft could punish the aberrant, the nonconformist.

n Repression of sexuality could result in the projection of fears and hopes onto women, who then had to be punished.

u Witches were accused of having sexual orgies with the Devil.

n Those accused were said to attend mass meetings called sabbats.

u Here they were said to be able to fly.

Village Origin

n Witchcraft stems primarily from village life.

n Each village usually had a person who it was believed had magical powers to cure the ill or stop calamities.

u The possession of this magic made this person extremely powerful within the village.

n Many of these people were elderly women.

u Used this power to help secure a purpose and as a means of supporting themselves.

Witch Hunts

n During the 16^th and 17^th centuries a series of with hunts could be seen throughout Europe.

n During the late 13^th century, the Church proclaimed only its clergy possessed legitimate magical powers.

u Giving of the sacraments, exorcisms.

n The Church believed that anyone other than the clergy who practiced magic received their powers from the devil.

n This made the witch-hunts a life and death struggle between the Church and the devil himself.

Why Women?

n Approximately 80% of the victims of witchcraft were women.

u Male fear of women.

u The threat of women breaking away from male domination.

u Older women were dependent upon social assistance.

F Often were hired as midwifes.

n Economics may have played a role in women being accused of witchcraft.

u Magical powers was a way for a woman to support herself if widowed or unmarried.

End of the Witch Hunts

n Many factors lead to the end of the witch hunts of the 17^th century.

u Advances in science changed people’s views of the supernatural.

u Fewer people believed words and thoughts could influence their lives.

u The Protestant religions probably helped to reduce the fear of the devil.

F Protestants believed the devil served God’s purpose and was controlled by God.

F Only God was the spiritual force that people should concern themselves with.

u The literature of the time also helped to promote the idea that people had some degree of control over their lives and not some supernatural force.