Western Civilization II

Chapter Sixteen

 

"The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion"

•      European countries during the 18th century used empires to promote mercantilism, and improve their economic status.

•      Trade rivalries developed causing great strain among the European powers.

–   Boundaries of empires established in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

 

Mercantilist Goals

•      Gain a favorable trade balance of gold and silver. (exports exceed imports)

•      Colonies established to provide raw materials for growing industries and also to provide markets for finished products.

•      National monopolies over colonies

–   restricting trade to home country.

 

Problems with Mercantilism

•      Many practices proved impractical.

•      Colonial and home markets didn’t mesh.

–   Spain unable to produce enough finished products for colonies.

–   Americans factories competed against British factories.

–   Colonists and different countries wished to trade with each other.

French and British Rivalry

•      North America was a major source of conflict between France and Britain.

–   Competition among colonists

–   Conflict over fishing rights and fur trade.

–   Competition among each other to gain alliances with Native American tribes.

•      India was another source of conflict.

–   Competition for trade between the British East India Company and the French Compangie des Indes.

 

 

Rivalry in India

•      The government of India was weakening during the 18th century.

•      France and Britain both saw it as an opportunity to expand their control of the region.

–   Both countries attempted to gain control of the government in India.

•   Joseph Dupleix of France

•   Robert Clive of England

–   Each country attempted to stop the other from government control of India.

Spanish Colonial System

•      Spanish society in the New World was based on classes as in Europe.

–   Viceroys: European born, high government officials and upper clergy. (peninsulares)

–   Creoles: Colonial born whites.

•   Resented the rule of the viceroys

•   Owned large farm estates and mines

•   Well-educated

•   Lower clergy were also the Creoles.

–   Mestizos: People of mixed white and Indian blood

•   farm laborers for the most part

–   Slaves: Indians, Negroes or a mixture of the two.

Importance of the Church

•      The Roman Catholic Church as an important force in Latin American society.

–   Supported by the government.

–   Used to spread European civilization in the New World.

–   Promoted education.

•   First universities founded in the New World

•   Brought the first printing press to American

–   Due to this spread of culture, Latin American cities enjoyed a higher level of civilization than those of other North American cities.

The Economy

•      Spain’s most important source of revenue from the New World came in the form of gold and silver.

•      Eventually agriculture will replace gold and silver as its major source of revenue.

–   Sugar cane and citrus fruits (Imported)

–   Tobacco and Cacao (Native)

–   Cattle (Imported)

The Plantation System

•      The basic unit of colonial Latin America was a self-sufficient farming estate.

•      Most were granted as royal charters.

•      Charters included the right of encomiendas.

–   The right to demand labor for Natives.

–   Due to harsh treatment and disease, many of these people died.

•   Death rate in Peruvian mines as high as 90%

•      Due to the need for increased labor supplies, the slave trade began during the 1500s.

–   More suitable to the hard work needed.

The Slave Experience

•      It is estimated that over 9 million Africans were transported to the New World.

•      Passage to the New World was devastating.

–   Many ships lost over 40% of their slaves in passage

–   Cheaper than trying to raise slave children to adulthood.

•      Due to the high mortality rate as workers, there was a constant need for more slaves from Africa.

–   Especially high in the West Indies

Life Conditions

•      Differed from colony to colony.

–   Portuguese treated their slaves the worst

–   In Spanish colonies the Church protected the slaves somewhat but spent more effort in protecting the Native Indians.

–   British and French colonies provided some protection but was rarely enforced.

•      Laws passed to maintain order

–   fear of a slave revolt

–   laws favored the masters over the slaves in all situations.

Emancipation Movements

•      The abolitionist movement began in Britain and France during the Enlightenment.

–   Abolished in the French colonies in  1794.

–   Britain abolished slave trading in 1807.

•      The Latin American wars for independence during the early 1800s brought an end to slavery in many countries.

–   Began in Haiti with a revolution against France lead by Toussaint L’Ouverture

–   Series of revolution throughout South and Central America

•      American “Emancipation Proclamation” of 1863.

Mid-Eighteenth Century Wars

The War of Jenkins Ear

•      War that helped illuminate the rising conflict over trade among the European powers.

•      Under the Treaty of Utrecht, Britain received the right (asiento) to provide Spain with slaves for a period of thirty years.

–   Britain also allowed to send one ship to Portobello in the Caribbean.

•   Ship was resupplied nightly by other British ships

–   One of these ships was boarded by the Spanish

•   Capt.. Robert Jenkins’ ear was cut off by the Spanish.

 

 

•      Event eventually escalates into a war between the two countries (1739).

–   British merchants put pressure on Parliament.

–   Prime Minister Walpole forced to engage in war.

•      May have been only a minor conflict.

•      Due to events in Europe during this period, a series of wars ensued lasting until 1815.

War of the Austrian Succession

•      In 1740, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Siliesia.

–   Claimed he was not bound to the Pragmatic Sanction.

–   Siliesia had rich farmland along with large iron deposits.

–   Its population was largely German speaking

•      The seizure of Siliesia began a series of campaigns known as the War of the Austrian Succession.

–   Lasted until 1748.

 

•      Became a European War.

–   France, Bavaria, and Saxony sided with Prussia

–   Britain, Russia, and the Dutch Netherlands sided with Austria.

•      Prussia defeated

–   Lost almost 10% of its population

–   Its countryside was devastated.

–   Berlin was invaded three separate times.

•      After the war there was a major diplomatic shift, with both Britain and France changing sides.

•      In 1756, rivalries lead to the beginning of the “Seven years War.”

The Seven Years War

•      Involved almost every European country.

•      Fought not only in Europe but also India and the Americas.

–   The French and Indian Wars

•      At one time, Prussia was surrounded by enemies in Europe.

–   With British aid, Frederick was able to hold off invasion.

•      Complexion of war changed when Russia changed sides and joined Prussia.

•      Treaty of Hubertusburg ended the war.

•      Prussia allowed to keep Siliesia.

England and France Compete for Empire

•     Basic causes of English-French Opposition

–  Commercial Rivalry

–  Preemptive Imperialism

–  Attempts to keep “Balance of Power”

–  Nationalism and ambitious monarchial houses.

–  Perceived threats and irrational reactions.

 

•    General Diplomatic Alliances

–  England and the Netherlands

–  France and Spain

–  Involvement of Prussia, Austria, and Russia as major political forces.

–  North American phases of the power struggles generally minor.

Inter-Colonial Wars

•     King William’s War (1689-97)

–  War of the League of Augsburg in Europe.

–  War ended with colonial status quo intact.

•     Queen Anne’s War (1701-13)

–  War of the Spanish Succession in Europe.

–  Treaty of Utrecht ended wars temporarily.

 

•     King George’s War (1744-48)

–  War of the Austrian Succession

–  England and France again agreed to status quo in North America.

–  French threat continued.

•     French and Indian Wars

–  Seven Years War in Europe

–  Based upon imbalance of power in Europe at the time.

–  Early losses to the French

•   Fort Oswego / Fort William Henry / Fort Duquesne

 

 

•      Under William Pitt (Foreign Minister) England begins effort to rid North America of the French.

•      Commander of British forces was Lord Jeffrey Amherst.

–   Captured Fort Louisburg in 1758

–   Captured Montreal in 1760

•      James Wolfe, Amhert’s second in command captured lead expedition to capture Quebec.

–   Captured several forts protecting Quebec

•   Niagara

•   Crown Point

•   Ticonderoga

Capture of Quebec

•     Wolfe attacked Quebec from the north and Amherst from the south (pincers movement).

–  Quebec attacked by Wolfe on Sept. 12, 1759

–  Battle of the Plains of Abraham.

•   Wolfe and the French commander, Marquis de Montcalm, both killed

–  The English capture of Canada assured.

–  Amherst captures Montreal

–  Last ditch effort by the French by use of Ottawa Indians under the leadership of Pontiac.

•   French eventually defeated

Treaty of Paris

•     Ended England’s most successful war.

•     English control over whole of North America east of the Mississippi River confirmed.

–  Florida won from Spain.

–  French driven from North America.

•     French allowed to cede Louisiana from Spain.

Coming of the American War for Independence

•     Prior to the French and Indian War, the colonies had been virtually self-ruled.

•     The ascension of George III changed English policy towards the colonies.

–  England realized colonial value.

–  Revenue badly needed to to cost of war.

–  Unexpected resistance encountered.

Adoption of New Colonial Policies

•     Clear royal and parliamentary authority asserted.

•     Proclamation of 1763

–  prohibited settlement beyond crest of Appalachians

–  Designed to prevent further frontier clashes

–  Symbolically asserted parliamentary authority

–  Had little actual effect - was unenforceable.

Policies of George Grenville

•     Prime Minister between 1763 and 1765. (Wm Pitt’s brother-in-law)

•     Enforced new economic policy

–  raise revenues to pay for cost of war

–  reform uneconomical colonial financial institutions.

•   American customs service losing money

•   Illegal importation of sugar from French West Indies a further drain.

 

•     Molasses Act

–  tax placed upon rum

•     Currency Act of 1764

–  prohibited all paper currency

•     Sugar Act of 1764

–  new taxes on sugar, indigo, coffee, wine, and textiles

–  violators prosecuted in Admiralty Court

•     Stamp Act of 1765

–  Imposed tax on all legal documents, newspapers, books, and playing cards.

 

 

•     Quartering Act of 1765

–  each colony required to make provisions for troops

–  living quarters and various personal comforts to be provided

Growth of Colonial Opposition Throughout 13 Colonies

•      New York and Virginia petitioned Parliament.

•      Virginia;s Resolution (1765)

–   Introduced by Patrick Henry

–   Claimed only the House of Burgesses had right to tax Virginians.

•      Stamp Act Congress (1765)

–   9 colonies represented

–   demanded repeal of Sugar and Stamp Acts

 

•      “Sons of Liberty” formed in 1765.

–   Organized in each colony

–   committed acts of violence and the crown

–   claimed inspiration from John Locke

 

•      Grenville eventually dismissed

–   Stamp Act repealed in 1766

–   Declaratory Act passed

•   declared general supremacy to pass laws.

•   Ignored debate over taxation

Basis for Disputes Remained

•      Meaning and Relevance of  “Natural Rights” philosophy.

•      Growing power of colonial militants.

–   James Otis (leader of Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence) “A man’s house is his castle”

–   John Adams (leading figure of independence movement)

–   Sam Adams (organizer of militant opposition groups in Massachusetts.

•      Virginia also provided strong leadership

–   Patrick Henry and George Washington

Resistance and Appeasement

•      Colonial Resistance mounted

–   Sons of Liberty active

–   Boycotts of British goods spread

•      Parliament Angered

–   English troops sent to Boston in 1768

–   Massachusetts assembly dissolved

–   Parliament declared all acts of New York’s assembly null and void

•      Resistance Spread

–   Boston Massacre of 1770

•      Efforts by London to appease colonies failed.

New Troubles

•     Gaspee Affair (1772)

–  British naval vessels harassing colonial shipping

–  Gaspee seized and burned off Providence

•     Tea Act of 1773

–  Only East Indian Company tea exempt

–  Led to Boston Tea Party of 1773

•     Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) 1774

–  series of five laws that violated colonists rights as Englishmen

 

 

•      General Thomas Gage made governor of Massachusetts

–   Set out to enforce new regulations by force if necessary.

•      The First Continental Congress met in 1774.

–   Proposals for reorganization to king and parliament

–   Emphasis on colonial self-regulating powers alone.

–   Acknowledgement of overall parliamentary supremacy to colonial assemblies.

–   Militants unhappy

•      Massachusetts militia begins storing arms.

The Revolutionary War

•      In April of 1776, the Second Continental Congress met.

•      Declared independence on July 4th, 1776.

•      The war continued until 1781.

–   Washington defeated Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown

–   America aided by the French

•   Marquis de Lafayette

•      Ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783

Events in Britain

•      George III in an attempt to gain control of the government tries to win the support of the House of Commons.

–   Believed the government had been controlled by the aristocracy during the reign of his grandfather and father.

•      Between 1761 and 1770, George appointed several ministers to help him win the support of the House of Commons.

•      Eventually appointed Lord North in 1770

–   chief minister until 1782

George III’s Attempt to Gain Power in Britain

•      Declared a tyrant by the Whigs.

•      George only trying to restore royal influence in Britain.

•      By the mid 1780s George had achieved some success.

–   Placed William Pitt the Younger in charge of the House of Commons.

The John Wilkes Affair

•      Newspaper publisher and member of Parliament.

•      Criticized the government’s handling of the peace treaty with France in 1763.

•      Arrested for libel.

•      Released due to Parliamentary privileges and fled the country.

•      Returned in 1768, and elected 4 times to Parliament.

–   Parliament refused to seat him.

–   “Wilkes and Liberty” slogan of radicals in England

•      Finally seated after becoming mayor of London

 

The Yorkshire Association Movement

•      By the end of the 1770s, many British were upset with the handling of the war in the colonies and the ministry of Lord North.

•      Christopher Wyvil founded the Yorkshire Association Movement

–   promoted moderate changes in the government

–   never appealed to the broad public

–   provided a base for later parliamentary reforms of the early 1800s.