AP European History
Chapter
Twenty-two
Economic Advance and Social Unrest
(1830-1850)
Industrial Revolution
Begins in England
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The Industrial
Revolution began in England because of a combination of favorable conditions that
existed there.
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Economists called
these conditions the Factors of Production.
1) Land: good
supply of coal and iron ore
2) Labor: changes
in agriculture provided a good labor
supply for factories.
3) Capital: due
to trade, England had surplus funds to
invest in new enterprises.
4) Management:
English society was not rigid allowing for both
nobility and commoner to rise in business.
5) Government:
favored commercial interests and provided
stability that stimulated expansion.
British Industrial Leadership
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The British textile trade was a major source of
revenue for England.
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These revenues along with those from the iron
industry and shipbuilding gave Britain
world economic dominance during the 1900s.
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The rest of Europe and
eventually the United States
will make use of the resources available in their regions and begin their own
industrial revolutions, modeling the English example.
Population Growth
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For centuries
before 1750, the population of Europe had grown very little.
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When the
Industrial Revolution began, it totaled about 140 million people.
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But by 1850, it
stood at 266 million.
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The greatest
population growth took place in such industrialized regions as England and Western
Europe.
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Due primarily to
a decreased death rate rather than an increased birth rate.
Greater food
supply.
New knowledge of
disease prevention and cures.
City Growth
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Changes in
agriculture, industry, and transportation, with the resulting increase in trade,
produced another striking result the rapid growth of cities.
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The greatest spur
to city growth was the factory system.
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Many early
factories were located in already established cities, which grew tremendously.
Manchester, Eng.
(1772) 25,000 (1851) 455,000
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When factories
were located in rural areas, cities grew up around them.
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Urban living
became the typical way of life for increasing numbers of people.
Moving Men and Goods
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The changes in
the Industrial Revolution made better transportation necessary.
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John McAdam
worked a new way of building roads.
A layer of large
stones, covered by smaller stones
Known as
Macadamized roads.
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The period from
1760 to 1850 was a great era of canal building.
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Canals furnished
cheaper and slightly faster transportation than roads.
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In 1814, George
Stephenson perfected a moving steam engine that propelled itself on rails.
Railways
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In 1829,
Stephensons famous engine, the Rocket, pulled a string of cars from Liverpool
to Manchester at a speed of 29 miles per hour.
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Networks of
railroads were soon built throughout the Western world.
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Improvements in
railways
Steel rails
Air brakes
More comfortable
coaches,
Special cars for
various types of freight
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Combined,
railroad transportation was fast, safe, and cheap.
Steamboats
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Many men tried
adapting the steam engine to ships.
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Robert Fulton
established the first regular inland steamboat service.
The Clermont was
launched on the Hudson River in 1807.
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In 1838, the
Great Western, operating by steam alone, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in fifteen
days.
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Regular steamship
traffic across the Atlantic developed by Samuel Cunard of Great Britain.
The Cunard Lines
still operate today.
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Steamships
improved over the years being build of steel instead of wood.
The Labor Force
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The Industrial
Revolution was successful due to a steady of supply of cheap labor.
l
This increasingly
important group made up of factory workers of the cities, the proletariat.
Had to sell their
labor because they had no property or tools of their own and received low wages
because they had few skills.
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Skilled workers
were not needed because the factory system put a premium on unskilled labor.
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Women and
children would accept lower wages than men
Especially
important in the textile industry.
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Over time, even
skilled workers were forced to accept factory jobs because there was no longer
a market for their skills.
The New Wage-Earning Class
l
The Industrial Revolution created a unique new
category of people who were dependent on their job alone for income, a job from
which they might be dismissed without cause.
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During the first century of the Industrial
Revolution, the factory worker was completely at the mercy of the law of supply
and demand of labor.
Ricardos Iron Law of Wages
Working Conditions
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In the early days
of the Industrial Revolution, working conditions were poor.
Long hours (14 to
16 hours per day) were considered normal for men, women, and children.
Factories were
uncomfortable, noisy, dirty, and poorly ventilated.
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Hot in the summer
and cold in the winter
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Sanitary
facilities were primitive.
Early machines
had no safety devices and serious injuries were frequent.
Compensation or
accident insurance was unheard of.
Wages were low
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The average
English worker in 1867 received wages from $5 to $9 a week.
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Wages for women
and children were even lower.
Child Labor
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Perhaps the worst feature of early
industrialization was child labor.
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It was common for children of five to be
employed in cotton mills and mines.
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Conditions in coal mines were particularly bad.
Women and children pulled carts in tunnels where
the roof was too low for a donkey to pass through.
Women worked on their hands and knees.
Children were beaten who fell asleep at their
tasks were beaten.
Living Conditions
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If life in the
mines and factories was hard and monotonous, life in the workers homes was not
much better.
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Working people
lived in cramped and crowded tenements, with as many as a dozen people to a
room.
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As late as 1840,
one out of every eight work-class families in Manchester lived in a cellar.
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Each family would
share a room, also including the attic.
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Food was poor and
recreation nonexistent.
Problems Facing Urban Workers
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Urban workers
also had to face a condition that had seldom troubled farm workers.
At times there
would be difficulty in selling all the goods of the fast-moving machines.
As sales income
decreased, employers would cut production, reduce wages, and lay off workers.
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The threat of
unemployment became a terrible nightmare for the factory worker.
There was no
unemployment insurance to tide him over a crisis.
Unless he could
find private charity, he faced starvation.
Urban vs. Rural Conditions
l
Conditions during the early Industrial
Revolution were shocking, compared to living conditions today.
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Compared to conditions in rural areas or
nonindustrial cities at the same time, however, they were not so bad.
The lower economic classes, whether peasant or
artisan, had always worked long and hard.
Suffered from periodic famines and epidemics.
Women and children had always worked hard,
especially in rural areas.
Conditions Eventually Improve
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The factory system
tended to depersonalize society and reduced workers to an impersonal status.
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The statistics
with regard to wages, diet, and clothing suggest overall improvement for the
workers.
Some industries
were notorious for social injustices
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Contemporary
social critics complained that industrialism brought misery to the workers,
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Other claimed
life was improving.
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During the latter
half of the 19th century conditions improved, as union action
combined with general prosperity and a developing social conscience, to improve
working conditions
Social Effects of Industrialism
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The most
important sociological result of industrialism was the urbanization of the
world.
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The new factories
acted as a magnet. Pulling people away from their rural roots and beginning the
most massive population transfer in history.
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Thus the birth of
factory towns and cities that grew into large industrial centers.
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The role of the
city changed in the 19th century from governmental and cultural
centers, to industrial centers with all the problems of urbanization.
Economic Dissatisfaction
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Workers in cities
became aware of their numbers and their common problems, so cites made the
working class a powerful force by raising their consciousness and enabling them
to unite for political action, to remedy the economic dissatisfaction.
The Mobs of
Pairs during the French Revolution
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It is in this
urban setting that the centurys great social and political dilemmas were
framed:
Working class
injustices
Gender
exploitation
Low standard of
living.
Family Structure
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Family structure and gender roles within the
family were altered by the growth of industrialism.
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Families as an economic unit were no longer the
chief unit of both production and consumption, but rather consumption alone.
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The new wage economy meant that families were
less closely bound together than in the past:
The economic link was broken.
Production work was taken out of the home and
placed elsewhere.
Family and the Workplace
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As factory wages
for skilled adult males rose, women and children were separated from the
workplace.
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A new pattern of
family life emerged.
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Gender determined
the roles in the home and domestic life emerged slowly.
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Married women
came to be associated with domestic duties, while the male tended to be the
sole wage earner.
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Single women and
widows had much work available, but that work commanded low wages and low
skills and provided no way to protect themselves fro exploitation.
Marriage
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Marriage as an institution in the wage economy
began to change.
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Women were now expected to create a nurturing
environment to which the family members returned after work.
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Married women worked outside the home only when
family needs, illness, or death of a spouse required them to do so.
Problems of Crime and Order
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During the 19th
century, governments were concerned with the growing problems of social
deviance.
Contributed to by rapid industrialization and
urbanization.
Realism
and Materialism
The
Revolutionary Tradition
Era of Reaction
l
The era of reaction that followed the collapse
of the Napoleonic regime and the Congress of Vienna was followed by a wave of
liberal and national agitations which was manifested in the Revolutions of
1820, 1825, and 1830.
Western Europe dominated by the liberals
Eastern and Southern Europe dominated by the
nationalists.
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In addition, reformers had succeeded in placing
the need for social and economic improvements of the masses on the
revolutionary platform.
Revolutionary Change Develops
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During the 1840s,
the movement toward revolutionary change was supported by four factors:
The failure of
the existing regime to address the economic and social problems which
accompanied the general economic collapse which occurred during the decade.
The regularity of
significant food shortages in the major urban centers.
The increased
popularity of the demands of the liberals and the nationalists.
The increasingly
radical political, economic, and social proposals advanced by the Utopian
Socialists the Anarchists, and the Chartists in England.
France
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The once liberal regime of King Louis Philippe
became increasingly conservative and oppressive under the leadership of Prime
Minister Francois Guizot and the Chamber of Deputies.
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Guizots opposition to reforms resulted in the
further restrictions of individual rights in general and the excessive use of
censorship to silence critics of the regime.
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A banquet would however, lead to the demise of
Louis Philippe as King of France.
Abdication of Louis Philippe
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The predominantly
liberal opposition scheduled a banquet for the night of Feb. 22, 1848.
Guizot failed to
grant the a permit
As a result
students and workingmen took to the streets and violence erupted.
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Louis dismissed
Guizot
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On the evening of
Feb. 23rd, fighting broke out between troops and opponents to the
regime and fifty people were killed.
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Reports of the
massacre spread quickly and over a thousand barricades were erected.
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On Feb. 24th,
Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England.
Provisional Government Established
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A provisional
government was established which represented the entire spectrum of opposition
forces.
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The principal
tasks of the provisional government were:
Serve as an
interim authority.
Arrange for
elections to a national Constituent Assembly.
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Two important
leaders of the movement were Alphonse Lamartine (a poet) and Louis Blanc (a
socialist leader.).
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During the spring
of 1848, national workshops were established to resolve the problems of
unemployment.
The June Days
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In April, French citizens voted for
representatives to the National Constituent Assembly.
The vote indicated that the nation supported the
establishment of a conservative republican government.
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The Assembly met in May and dissolved the
National Workshops, the result was the confrontation known as The June Days,
during which French troops led by General Cavaignac suppressed the radicals who
wanted to maintain the workshops.
The Second French Republic
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A new constitution was developed and accepted in
October 1848.
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It established the Second French Republic which
provided for a president and a single chamber assembly which would be elected
on the basis of universal manhood suffrage.
The president would serve a four year term.
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Presidential elections were held in December and
Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, easily defeated his rivals Cavaignac and
Lamartine.
The Austrian Empire
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Revolutionary activity broke out in Vienna on
March 13, 1848.
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Within 48 hours, Prince Metternich, the symbol
of reaction throughout Europe, resigned, and Ferdinand I, granted concessions
including a pledge to support the development of a constitution and the
extension of individual liberties.
Hungary
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The nationalist ambitions of the Hungarians were
advanced by Louis Kossuth.
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On March 15, 1848, the Hungarian Diet declared:
a constitution which established a national
assembly based on a limited franchise.
specified individual freedoms.
eliminated the remnants of the feudal order
And established an autonomous Hungary within the
Austrian Empire.
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On March 31, 1848, the Austrian government
accepted these substantive changes.
Czech Nationalism
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Czech nationalistic aspirations were manifested
with the establishment of a Bohemian Diet in March.
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Its initial demands concerned:
universal manhood suffrage
guarantees of basic political and religious
rights
and the parity of the Czech and German languages
in education and government.
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On April 8th,
Ferdinand I, granted these concessions and rendered Bohemia an autonomous
state.
Pan-Slavic Congress & April Decree
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The further development of Czech nationalism was
blurred by the emergence of the Pan-Slavic Congress in June of 1848.
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The leaders of the Pan-Slavic Congress hoped to
establish an autonomous government for Czechs, Slovaks, and other Slavs within
the Austrian Empire.
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The April Decree, which was issued by the
Hapsburg government pledged to eliminate the feudal services and duties which
were still imposed on the peasants.
Prussia and the German States
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News of the revolt in France resulted in
rebellions in Prussia and other German states such as Baden, Bavaria, Hanover,
and Saxony.
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The princes of the lesser states attempted to
nullify the more strident demands of the revolutionaries by promising
constitutions and appointing liberal ministers.
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However, King Frederick William IV of Prussia
was adamant in his refusal to placate the revolutionaries; consequently, a
violent revolution developed in Berlin.
The Berlin Assembly
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On March 17, 1848, Frederick William IV relented
and announced that a Prussian assembly (The Berlin Assembly) would be convened
in April, 1848.
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A constitution would also be developed.
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Furthermore, he announced that internal reforms
would be instituted, and that Prussia would assist in the development of a
constitutional revitalization of the German Confederation.
The Frankfurt Assembly
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The Frankfurt
Assembly, which was a Pan-German assembly interested in the formulation of an
integrated union of German states, convened in May, 1848.
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During the next
year, the group of liberals and nationalists developed a framework for a united
Germany along the lines of the Kleindeutsch, or Small Germany.
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This approach to
German unification did not incorporate the Austrian Empire because of the great
numbers of non-German people in that states.
Advocated of the
Kleindeutsch plan opposed the Grossdeutsch or Great Germany approach.
End of the Revolution
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In 1849, Frederick William IV received an offer
to lead the new Germany.
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While interested in pursuing this opportunity,
he declined because of the shift in the direction of the revolution.
A reaction against the revolution had set in and
most of the radical leaders had fled the German states.
Italy
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In the Italian
peninsula, revolutionary activity broke out in Milan in March, 1848 and was
directed primarily by nationalists who were interested in expelling the
Austrians from Lombardy and Venetia.
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King Charles
Albert of Sardinia and Piedmont capitalized on the revolution by declaring war
on Austria.
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In central Italy,
Pope Pius IX expressed support for a unified Italian state.
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In the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies, an isolated revolt in Palermo, which occurred earlier than
the rebellion in Paris resulted in the granting of a liberal constitution by
the reactionary King Ferdinand II.
Italian Nationalism
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Throughout Italy the revolution emphasized the
cause of Italian nationalism and the re-emergence of Italian pride through the
Risorgimento.
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There was no evidence that the revolution was
seriously concerned with the economic and social problems which confronted the
Italian peasants.
Failure of Italian Nationalism
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Austrian Field
Marshal Josef Graf Radetsky von Raders withdrew the Austrian forces to the
Quadrilateral, a series of fortresses on the Adige and Mincia.
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There Radetsky
regrouped, and in July 1848, launched a counter-offensive which resulted in the
resounding defeat of the Italian forces under Charles Albert at Custozza.
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In 1849 Charles Albert
undertook another military initiative but was defeated by Radetsky at Novara.
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Charles Albert
abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
The Failure of the Revolutions, 1848-1849
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By the summer of 1848, the revolutionary effort
had been spent and the earlier gains of the late winter and spring had been
reversed or challenged in many countries.
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The failures of the Revolutions of 1848 was due
to several major factors:
Armed forces remained loyal to the old
leadership
Revolutionaries appeased by liberal political
reforms.
Most people opposed radical economic and social
changes.
Revolutionary Failures in Central and Eastern Europe
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In Central Europe, revolutions, which had been
led by the middle class, did not express an interest in addressing social and
economic problems.
When students and workers joined the cause, the
middle class were alienated from the revolutionary movement.
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In Eastern and Southern Europe, the nationalist
revolutions lacked organization and, above all, the military capacity to resist
the professional armies of the Austrian Empire.
Final Result
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By 1849, the revolutions had been suppressed or
redirected.
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Only in France with the Second French Republic
(1848-1852) and in Prussia (the Constitution of 1850) did some of the earlier
gains endure.