WESTERN
CIVILIZATION
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
“The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World
War I”
Population
Trends and Migration
l
At the turn of the century, Europeans made up
20% of the world’s overall population.
– 1850
– 266 million
– 1900
– 401 million
– 1910
– 447 million
l
Though the growth seen in Europe
was steady, it was surpassed by the tremendous growth seen in underdeveloped
countries.
l
This continuing growth contributes to the
overpopulation seen in various parts of the world today.
European
Migration
l
During the mid
1800s serfdom was eliminated in many parts of Europe
allowing people to move as never done before.
l
Improved
transportation systems also allowed for an increase in migration throughout Europe.
l
Inexpensive land
and a promise of hope throughout the developing nations of the world further
encouraged people to move.
l
Between 1846 and
1932, over 50 million Europeans left for various parts of the world.
l
During the latter
part of the 19th century, eastern Europeans also began to migrate
out of Europe.
– Helped to relieve many social pressures occurring in Europe.
l
This massive
migration of the 19th century helped to “Europeanize” the world.
The
Second Industrial Revolution
l
During the last quarter century of the 1800s,
the continent of Europe closed the economic gap between
them and England.
– Belgium,
France, and Germany
all saw dramatic increases in industrial production.
– German
steel production overtook that of Great Britain
in 1983 and more then doubled it in 1914.
l
The industrialization of Europe and
especially Germany
had a major impact on the economic and political life of the continent.
New
Industries
l
The first industrial revolution was fired by
textiles, steam, and iron.
l
The Second Industrial Revolution will be lead by
steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil.
– During
the 1850, Henry Bessemer developed a process to manufacture steel cheaply and
quickly.
l
1860 - 125,000 tons of steel produced.
l
1913 – 32, 020,000 tons of steel produced.
– The
Solway process revolutionized the utilization of chemical by-products for
soaps, dyes, and plastics.
New
Industries / Electricity
l
The growth of electrical use probably had the
greatest impact on the Second Industrial Revolution.
– Versatile,
efficient and easily transportable.
l
Great Britain
built the first public power plant in 1881.
l
Electrical use spread rapidly throughout Western
Europe.
– Electric
lighting, streetcars and subways.
New
Industries / Oil
l
The first automobile with an internal combustion
engine was built by Gottlieb Daimler, in 1887.
l
For the next few decades, the automobile was a
toy for the wealthy.
l
Henry Ford and his assembly line methods made
the automobile less costly and accessible to the masses.
l
With the advent of the auto and the greater
demand for plastics and other petroleum based chemicals, a significant increase
for crude oil developed.
l
The first major oil companies were Standard Oil,
British Shell Oil, and Royal Dutch petroleum.
Major Dates of the Second Industrial Revolution
l
1857: Bessemer
process for making steel.
l
1873: Beginning
of major economic downturn.
l
1876: Alexander
Graham Bell invents the telephone.
l
1879: Thomas
Edison perfects the electric light.
l
1881: First
electric power plant in Britain.
l
1886: Daimler
invents internal combustion engine.
l
1887: Daimler’s
first automobile.
l
1895: Diesel
engine invented.
l
1895: Wireless
telegraphy invented.
l
1903: Wright
brothers make first successful airplane flight.
l
1909: Ford
manufacturers the Model T.
Economic
Difficulties
l
Despite advances in industrial growth, the last
half of the 19th century did not see continuous economic growth.
l
The last quarter of the century saw an economic
downturn due to increased foreign competition and poor weather.
l
This economic depression hit the agricultural
sector the hardest and Europe saw an increase of
emigration again out of the predominantly agricultural areas.
Economic
Woes & Outcomes
l
A depression in 1873 forced the closing of
several banks throughout Europe and the United
States.
l
Followed by two decades of economic stagnation.
l
Both prices and wages fell.
– Real
wages maintained during the period and in some countries, rose.
l
Most workers still lived in sub par conditions.
– Strikes
and other types of labor conflicts occurred.
– The
economic downturn allowed for the growth of trade unions and socialist party
activity.
Consumer
Growth
l
The demand for consumer goods brought the
economy back from the depression by 1900.
l
Lower food prices allowed for more discretionary
income.
l
Urbanization also created larger markets for
consumer goods.
l
New forms of marketing developed during the last
part of the 19th century.
– Department
stores, chain stores, mail-order businesses, and improved advertising
stimulated the demand for consumer durables.
Rise
of the Middle Class
l
The latter half of the 19th century
saw the emergence of a great middle class in Europe.
l
In the first half of the 19th
century, the middle class were the leaders of revolution, now they are the
leaders of commerce.
l
Due to their increase in wealth, the middle
class often united with the upper class to fend off socialism and other liberal
movements.
l
The middle class also became the leaders of the
consumer market in Europe and the United States.
Social
Distinctions
l
The middle class of Europe was actually quite
diverse in its membership.
l
Large business owners and bankers were the most
prosperous and their lifestyle rivaled that of the aristocracy.
– W.H.
Smith (owned newsstands) became a member of the House of Lords.
– The
Krupp family (munitions and steel) were highly respected.
l
Only a few hundred of such families gained this
kind of wealth.
Entrepreneurs
& Professionals
l
The next level
within the middle class included business owners and professionals.
– Obtained enough wealth to afford private homes as well
as various luxury items.
l
Below this group
were small business owners, teachers, and others whose employment was due to
their educational attainment.
– Though not as wealthy, they gained respect for their
employment in non manual labor positions.
l
The lowest level
of the middle class was made up of the “petite bourgeoisie.”
– Made up of white collar workers such as clerks,
secretaries and lower level government officials.
Problems
of Urban Life
l
By 1911, 44% of the population of France lived
in urban centers, as well as 60% in Germany.
– This
massive influx of people into the cities caused many problems.
l
Poor housing.
l
Social anonymity.
l
Unemployment of unskilled labor or unnecessary
skilled labor.
l
Ethnic diversity and conflict.
l
Political and social discontent.
–
Anti-Semitism of Russian Jews migrating west.
The
New Cities of Europe
l
Due to the massive influx of people into the
cities, city planners went to work to accommodate the growing populations.
l
The most famous transformation took place in
Paris.
– Paris
was a mix of lavish houses and squalor.
– The
Seine River was an open sewer and the streets full of garbage.
l
The redesign of Paris occurred during the reign
of Napoleon III.
– The
reconstruction program of Paris was undertaken by Georges Haussmann.
A New
Paris
l
Whole districts
were destroyed to make way for open boulevards and streets.
– Wide streets were not only aesthetically popular but
also allowed for the quick movement of troops throughout the city.
l
Several parks
such as the Bois de Boulogne were built.
l
Structures such
as the Paris Opera House along with several other public buildings.
l
At the end of the
Third Republic and the Commune, Paris saw further expansion.
– Departments stores, office buildings and middle class
housing sprung up throughout the city.
– Two other major constructions were the Eiffel Tower
and the Basilica of the Sacred Heart
– Construction of a subway began in 1895.
Development
of Suburbs
l
Due to the redevelopment of Paris as well as
other cities the poor and the lower middle classes were forced to find other
housing.
– The
middle class looked for less congestion.
– The
working class looked for affordability.
l
New housing districts called suburbs developed
because of the expansion of the railway systems.
– Low
daily fares allowed workers to live on the outskirts of the cities and commute
to their jobs within the city.
– The
development of the subway and electrical tram systems also promoted such
growth.
Urban
Sanitation
l
Another primary concern among city leaders was
providing proper sanitation systems for their growing cities.
l
This concern was caused by the great Cholera
epidemics of the 1830s and 1840s.
– This
epidemic not only hit the poor but all classes which brought much greater
pressure on city officials to solve the problem.
– Several
books were also published during this period describing the filth found within
European cities.
l
Edwin Chadwick’s “Report on the Sanitary
Conditions of the Labouring Population,” shocked England.
Water
and Sewage Systems
l
It was determined that in order to clean up the
cities of Europe new water and sewage systems were needed.
– A
major health achievement of the last half of the 19th century.
l
The new sewer system of Paris was also part of
Haussmann’s plans for the city.
l
Throughout Europe various types of water and
sewer systems were installed and the spread of diseases such as Cholera dropped
dramatically.
Public
Health Programs
l
Several
government programs were established during this period to solve the urban
health issue.
– Public Health Act of 1848 (England)
– Melon Act of 1851 (France)
l
Public health
officials were given power to investigate structures and homes in the name of
public health.
– Private property could be condemned for posing health
hazards to the community.
– Private land could be purchased for the construction
of sewer and water systems.
l
By the end of the
century, the bacterial theory of disease was fully accepted due to the work of Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch and Joseph Lister.
Housing
Reforms
l
Sanitation reform
also brought about changes in housing.
– The housing of the poor was often a breeding ground
for bacteria.
l
Following the
revolutions of 1848, changes began to develop throughout Western Europe.
l
Housing reforms
looked to solve the various medical, political and moral issues posed by the
slums.
– Early leaders of such reform were A.V. Huber of
Germany and Jules Simon of France.
l
These reformers
believed that adequate, respectable housing would social many of Europe’s
social and political problems.
l
Several countries
provided tax breaks and provided low interest loans for lower income housing.
l
By 1914, though
not completely solved, Europe was attempting to solve the issue of proper
housing for people.
Women
During the Latter Half
of the 19th Century
Social
and Legal Problems
l
The women of the
late 19th century faced three social and legal disabilities in three
areas:
– Property rights
l
Married women
could not own property.
l
No legal standing
before the law.
l
Reforms came
slowly
–
1882, Britain
passed the Married Woman’s Property Act.
–
In 1905, French
women could open their own savings account.
–
In 1900. German
women were allowed to take a job without their husbands permission.
– Family Law
l
Legal codes
forced women to “give obedience” to their husbands.
l
Divorce was
difficult.
l
Abortion and
contraception were illegal
l
Rape cases
usually worked to the disadvantage of the woman.
l
The authority of
the husband also extended to the rights of the children.
Social
and Legal Problems (cont.)
– Education
–
Women had less access to education than men had.
–
What was available was inferior to that of the men.
–
The illiteracy rate of women was much higher than that
of men in Europe.
–
Changes and Reforms
•
1860, the University of Zurich opened its doors to
women.
•
1878, the University of London accepted women.
•
Eastern European countries were slower to allow women
into higher educational institutions.
–
Secondary Education
•
The lack of public and private secondary schools
limited the number of women qualified to attend the universities.
•
This was due to men not wanting competition in their
own fields.
Working
Women
l
Two major events
occurred involving women during the Second Industrial Revolution.
– A rise in the number of professional jobs available
outside the home.
l
Government and
corporate bureaucracies provided opportunities for women.
l
Retail stores
also provided new opportunities.
l
Many teachers
were now women.
–
Women in all
positions were paid less than men
– The withdrawal of married women from the workforce.
l
The number of
jobs in the textile industries were shrinking
l
Employers wanted
unmarried women whose family would not interfere with their work.
l
Women were also
allowed to stay home because the real wages of their husbands grew providing
enough income for the family.
Poverty
and Prostitution
l
During the 19th century there were
about twice as many women seeking work as their were jobs.
l
Prostitution was not new, but became a means for
women to make a living in an overcrowded labor force.
– Most
were 18 to 25, and were from the rural areas.
– Fewer
prostitutes were found in manufacturing cities since jobs were more available.
– Prostitution
was usually legal and regulated by municipal governments.
Major
Date in Late 19th & Early 20th Century Women’s
History
l
1869: John Stuart
Mill’s The Subjection of Women.
l
1894: Union
of German Women’s Organization
founded.
l
1907: Norway
permits women to vote on national issues.
l
1910: British
suffragettes adopt radical tactics.
l
1918: Vote
extended to some British women.
l
1918: 19th
Amendment of U.S. Constitution amended allowing women to vote.
l
1920: Oxford and
Cambridge award degrees to women.
l
1922: French
Senate defeats bill extending vote to women.
l
1928: Britain
extends vote to women on same basis as men.
Jewish
Emancipation
l
Equal citizenship for Jews in Europe was a major
accomplishment of political liberalism.
– In
1782, Joseph II of Austria gave Jews the same basic rights as Christians.
– In
1789, the National Assembly of France recognized Jews as French citizens.
– Throughout
Western and Central Europe, Jews gradually gained more and more rights as
citizens.
l
In Poland and Russia however, prejudice and
discrimination continued against the Jews thru W.W. I.
– The
pogroms
of Russia terrorized the Jewish people forcing many to flee west.
Broadened
Opportunities
l
After the revolutions of 1848, Jews throughout
most of Europe saw a general improvement upon the lives.
– Attained
full citizenship in Germany, Scandinavia, and Italy.
– In
1858, Jews could sit at Parliament.
– 1867,
full citizenship given to Jews In the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.
– Large
numbers of Jewish men began to enter professions such as lawyers and doctors
that had once been closed to them.
Anti-Semiticism
l
After 1880, the
peace seen by the Jews of Europe began to erode.
l
Jewish bankers
and financiers were blamed for the economic depression of the 1870s.
l
In the 1880s,
organized anti-Semitism developed in Germany.
l
The Dreyfus Affair in France also showed hatred of the Jews.
– A Jewish officer in the French army accused and
convicted of being a spy.
l
Most Jewish
leaders believed this intolerance was only temporary.
l
Anti-Semiticism
will reach its peak during the 1930s and 40s.
– The Holocaust
Labor,
Socialism, and Politics to World War I
Changes
in Labor
l
During the latter half of the 19th
century, the number of unskilled laborers grew dramatically.
l
Working conditions were still poor, but after
the revolutions of 1848, they began to use other methods to improve their lot
in life other than riots.
l
Chief among these new methods were:
– The
development of trade unions.
– The
support of democratic political parties.
– The
support of more radical socialist parties.
Trade
Unions
l
Trade unions
began to flourish when governments began to offer them legal protection.
– Made legal in Britain in 1871.
– Napoleon III allowed weak labor unions to form by 1868
and by 1884, unions were fully recognized.
– In Germany unions were allowed after 1890.
l
Early unions
concentrated on skilled labor.
– Sought to improve wages and working conditions.
l
By the end of the
century, unions for unskilled laborers were begin organized.
– These unions met great opposition from the owners.
– Frequently had to resort to long strikes to achieve
their demands.
– Membership in unions grew during this period but most
workers were not unionized.
Democracy
l
By the end of the
19th century almost all of Europe used a democratic electoral
system.
– Universal Male Suffrage
l
Britain – 1884
l
Germany – 1871
l
Switzerland –
1879
l
Spain – 1890
l
Italy, 1912
l
Due to the
broadened franchise, politicians could no longer afford to ignore the common
laborer of Europe.
l
The advent of
democracy brought organized mass political parties like those already in
existence in the United States to Europe for the first time.
l
The new political
parties of Europe mobilized the new voters of Europe.
Socialist
Political Parties
– Known
as the “First International.”
– Membership
included socialists, anarchists and Polish nationalists.
– Karl
Marx gave the inaugural address to the first meeting of the Association.
l
Though short lived, the “First International”
had a great impact upon the rise of socialism throughout Europe.
– Helped
promote Marxism as the dominant form of socialism on the continent.
Fabian
Society
l
Neither Marxism
or any other form of socialism made great strides in Great Britain.
l
Due to the growth
of organized labor in Britain, socialism will not gain wide spread support.
– The Independent Labor party founded in 1893 was
ineffective in spreading radical Marxist ideas.
l
Organized labor
in Britain made great gains in 1906, when the newly organized Labour Party had
29 members elected to Parliament.
l
The one socialist
group that prospered within Britain was the non-Marxist intellectual group
called the “Fabian Society.”
– Named after Q. Fabius Maximus, the Roman general whose
tactics against Hannibal involved avoiding direct conflict that might lead to
defeat.
Fabianism
l
The Fabian Society promoted gradual change in
regards to social reforms.
l
Leading members were:
– Sidney
Webb, H.G. Wells, George Bernard Shaw & Graham Wallas.
l
There goal instead of activism was the educating
of the masses in regards to socialism.
– Particularly
interested in the collective ownership of municipal services.
l
“Gas-and-Water” socialism
British
Reforms
l
Parliament acted slowly to pressures by liberal
groups within Britain.
– Joseph
Chamberlain unsuccessfully attempted to establish social reforms and financing
them through tariff increases.
l
This campaign split the Conservative party.
l
In 1906, fearing the loss of seats to the Labor
Party, the Liberal party reinstated laws protecting unions.
l
Under the leadership of David Lloyd George,
Britain enacted several new laws protecting the rights of the worker.
– The
National Insurance Act of 1911, provided unemployment benefits and health care
for workers.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
l
Bismarck attempted to hold socialism in check in
Germany.
l
Even though they were not involved he used the
assassination attempt against William I against socialist groups and had
several antisocialist laws passed.
l
Bismarck’s attempts failed eventually and
members of the Social Democratic Party gained more seats in the German
Reichstag.
l
To counter the socialist movement, Bismarck
enacted a plan for old and and disability pensions.
Marxist
Socialism in Germany
l
After William II forced the resignation of
Bismarck, he repealed the antisocialist laws.
– Tried
to build a new political support among the working class.
l
With these laws lifted the socialist leadership
needed to decide what direction to take.
– Erfurt
Program
l
Under the leadership of Karl Kautsky, the socialist movement in
Germany became strongly pro-Marxist, advocating the demise of capitalism.
l
But, instead of promoting revolution, the party
favored to work in the aid of the working classes of Germany.
Russian
Socialism
l
1892: Witte appointed finance minister.
l
1895: Lenin arrested and sent to Siberia.
l
1897: 11 ½ hour work-day established.
l
1898: Russian Social Democratic Party founded.
l
1900: Lenin leaves Russia for Western Europe.
l
1901: Socialist Revolutionary Party founded.
l
1903: Constitutional Democratic Party
(Cadets)founded.
l
1903: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks split.
l
1903: Witte dismissed.
Russian
Socialism
l
1904:
Russo-Japanese War
l
1905: Japan
defeats Russia
l
1905: Bloody
Sunday
l
1905: General
strikes occur throughout Russia.
l
1905: October
manifesto establishes constitutional government.
l
1906: First
meeting of the Duma.
l
1906: Stolypin
appointed prime minister.
l
1906: Dissolution
of first Duma.
l
1906: Land
redemptions payments canceled for peasants.
l
1907: Second Duma
seated and dismissed
l
1907: Third Duma
elected
l
1911: Stolypin
assassinated.
l
1912: Fourth Duma
elected.
